Wednesday, November 27, 2019

10 Chlorine Facts (Cl or Atomic Number 17)

10 Chlorine Facts (Cl or Atomic Number 17) Chlorine (element symbol Cl) is an element you encounter every day and need in order to live.  Chlorine is atomic number 17 with element symbol Cl. Fast Facts: Chlorine Symbol: ClAtomic Number: 17Appearance: Greenish-yellow gasAtomic Weight: 35.45Group: Group 17 (Halogen)Period: Period 3Electron Configuration: [Ne] 3s2  3p5Discovery: Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1774) Chlorine Facts Chlorine belongs to the halogen element group. It is the second lightest halogen, after fluorine. Like other halogens, its an extremely reactive element that readily forms the -1 anion. Because of its high reactivity, chlorine is found in compounds. Free chlorine is rare but exists as a dense, diatomic gas.Although chlorine compounds have been used by man since ancient times, pure chlorine was not produced (on purpose) until 1774 when Carl Wilhelm Scheele reacted magnesium dioxide with spiritus salis (now known as hydrochloric acid) to form chlorine gas. Scheele did not recognize this gas as a new element, instead believing it to contain oxygen. It wasnt until 1811 that Sir Humphry Davy determined the gas was, in fact, a previously unidentified element. Davy gave chlorine its name.Pure chlorine is a greenish-yellow gas or liquid with a distinctive odor (like chlorine bleach). The element name comes from its color. The Greek word chloros means greenish-yellow.Chlorine is the 3rd most abundant element in the ocean (about 1.9% by mass) and 21st most abundant element in the Earths crust. There is so much chlorine in the Earths oceans that it would weigh 5x more than our present atmosphere if it were somehow suddenly released as a gas.Chlorine is essential for living organisms. In the human body, its found as the chloride ion, where it regulates osmotic pressure and pH and aids digestion in the stomach. The element is usually obtained by eating salt, which is sodium chloride (NaCl). While its needed for survival, pure chlorine is extremely toxic. The gas irritates the respiratory system, skin, and eyes. Exposure to 1 part per thousand in air may cause death. Since many household chemicals contain chlorine compounds, its risky to mix them because toxic gases may be released. In particular, its important to avoid mixing chlorine bleach with vinegar, ammonia, alcohol, or acetone.Because chlorine gas is toxic and because its heavier than air, it was used as a chemical weapon. The first use was in 1915 by the Germans in World War I. Later, the gas was also used by the West ern Allies. The effectiveness of the gas was limited because its strong odor and distinctive color alerted troops to its presence. Soldiers could protect themselves from the gas by seeking higher ground and breathing through damp cloth since chlorine dissolves in water. Pure chlorine is obtained primarily by electrolysis of saltwater. Chlorine is used to make drinking water safe, for bleaching, disinfection, textile processing, and to make numerous compounds. The compounds include chlorates, chloroform, synthetic rubber, carbon tetrachloride, and polyvinyl chloride. Chlorine compounds are used in medicines, plastics, antiseptics, insecticides, food, paint, solvents, and many other products. While chlorine is still used in refrigerants, the number of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) released into the environment has dramatically declined. These compounds are believed to have contributed significantly to the destruction of the ozone layer.Natural chlorine consists of two stable isotopes: chlorine-35 and chlorine-37. Chlorine-35 accounts for 76% of the natural abundance of the element, with chlorine-37 making up the other 24% of the element. Numerous radioactive isotopes of chlorine have been produced.The first chain reaction to be discovered was a chemical reaction involving chlorine, not a nuclear reaction, as you might expect. In 1913, Max Bodenstein observed a mixture of chlorine gas and hydrogen gas exploded upon exposure to light. Walther Nernst explained the chain reaction mechanism for this phenomenon in 1918. Chlorine is made in stars via the oxygen-burning and silicon-burning processes. Sources Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-08-037941-9.Weast, Robert (1984). CRC, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Boca Raton, Florida: Chemical Rubber Company Publishing. pp. E110. ISBN 0-8493-0464-4.Weeks, Mary Elvira (1932). The discovery of the elements. XVII. The halogen family. Journal of Chemical Education. 9 (11): 1915. doi:10.1021/ed009p1915Winder, Chris (2001). The Toxicology of Chlorine. Environmental Research. 85 (2): 105–14. doi:10.1006/enrs.2000.4110

Sunday, November 24, 2019

How Smoke Machines Work - All Kinds

How Smoke Machines Work - All Kinds Smoke, fog, haze, and mist machines create some exciting special effects. Have you ever wondered what makes the smoke? Have you ever wanted to create the effect yourself? If so, you are in luck, as we will reveal these mysteries. However, we will warn you that a little knowledge is a dangerous thing! If used incorrectly, the equipment and chemicals used to generate simulated smoke can be dangerous (toxic, burn hazard, asphyxiation hazard, fire hazard, etc.). Also, all types of smoke generators will trigger smoke alarms. Im telling you how the effects are created, not advising you to make your own smoke. If you are a serious do-it-yourself type, read the article and then please follow the links I have provided to the right of this article, which include specific instructions and warnings from professionals and experienced amateurs.   Dry Ice and Water Make Smoke (Fog Really) Aside from using a smoke machine, this method is the simplest for most people, both in practice and obtaining materials. Dry ice is solid carbon dioxide. You can make a dense fog by adding dry ice to hot water or steam. The carbon dioxide is vaporized, making a fog, and the rapid cooling of the surrounding air condenses water vapor in the air, adding to the effect. Important Points Dry ice fog sinks to the floor.Water temperature affects the characteristics of the fog. Hotter water or steam vaporizes the carbon dioxide more quickly, yielding lots of fog and using up the dry ice more quickly, too. If fresh hot water or steam isnt added, the remaining water will cool quickly.An easy smoke machine can be made using a styrofoam cooler. Simply add hot water and dry ice. Machines that use dry ice work by continually heating water, to keep the fog flowing. Simple machines are also available to make dry ice or to solidify air.Dry ice is cold enough to cause frostbite - use protective gloves when handling it.Remember that use of dry ice increases the level of carbon dioxide in the air where it is used. This can present a respiratory hazard low to ground (or downstairs, if applicable), in enclosed spaces, or with large quantities of dry ice. Liquid Nitrogen Makes Real Water  Fog One of the big advantages of liquid nitrogen is that nothing extra is needed to produce fog.  Liquid nitrogen works  by evaporating and by cooling the air, causing water to condense. Nitrogen is the primary component of air and is non-toxic. Important Points Nitrogen fog  sinks to the ground.Smoke can be made by either letting the nitrogen off-gas naturally or by using a fan to blow the smoke where it is wanted.Liquid nitrogen  presents a serious hazard to the user.  Although dry ice  can give you frostbite, liquid nitrogen is cold enough to cause considerable tissue damage and death. Do not use nitrogen unless you have had the  proper cryogenics training. Never use liquid nitrogen in a situation where other people can access the nitrogen source.As the nitrogen concentration increases, the oxygen concentration in a room decreases, presenting a potential asphyxiation hazard. Atomized Glycol Smoke Machines Most smoke machines use water with a glycol mixture to produce special effects.  Many commercial smoke machines use fog juice that consists of glycols, glycerine, and/or mineral oil, with varying amounts of distilled water. The glycols are heated and forced into the atmosphere under pressure to create a fog or haze. There are a variety of mixtures that may be used. See the reference bar to the right of this article for  Material Safety Data Sheets  on some example types. Some homemade recipes for fog juice are: 15%-35% food grade glycerine to 1 quart distilled water125 ml glycerine to 1 liter distilled water(glycerine creates a haze at concentrations of 15% or less and more of a fog or smoke at concentrations higher than 15%)Unscented mineral oil (baby oil), with or without water(we cant vouch for the safety of using mineral oil for fog juice)10% distilled water: 90% propylene glycol (dense fog)40% distilled water: 60% propylene glycol (quick dissipating)60% water: 40% propylene glycol (very quick dissipation)30% distilled water: 35% dipropylene glycol: 35% triethylene glycol (long-lasting fog)30% distilled water: 70% dipropylene glycol (dense fog) The resulting smoke should not smell burnt. If it does, likely causes are too high of an operating temperature or too much glycerine/glycol/mineral oil in the mixture. The lower the percentage of organic, the less expensive the fog juice, but the fog will be lighter and will not last as long. Distilled water is only necessary if a heat exchanger or other tubing is used in the system. Using a homemade fog mixture in a commercial machine will almost certainly void the warranty, possibly damage the machine, and possibly pose a fire and/or health hazard. Important Points This type of fog is heated and will rise or disperse at a higher level than dry ice or  liquid nitrogen fog. Coolers can be used if low-lying fog is desired. Changing the mixture or conditions of dispersion of atomized glycols can result in many special effects that are difficult to achieve with other simulated smokes.Glycols can undergo heat denaturation into highly toxic substances, such as formaldehyde. This is one of the major problems with homemade smoke machines - they may operate at a temperature that is incompatible with the substances being used. Also, this is a danger with homemade fog juice used in commercial machines.Glycols, glycerine, and mineral oil can all leave an oily residue, resulting in slick or sometimes slightly sticky surfaces. Be aware of the potential safety hazards, especially since the smoke may limit visibility. Also, some people may experience skin irritation from exposure to  glycol fog.Some glycols are toxic and should not be used to create smoke.  Ethylene glycol  is poisonous. Some glycols are sold as mixtures. Medical or pharmaceutical grade non-toxic glycols  only  should be used in smoke mach ines. Do  not  use antifreeze to make a fog mixture.  The ethylene glycol types  are poisonous and  the propylene glycol types  always contain undesirable impurities. If water is used, it needs to be distilled water, since hard water deposits can damage the atomizer apparatus.Some of the chemicals that can be used for this type of smoke are flammable. Real Water Vapor  Fog In some cases, this type of simulated smoke is created by finely dispersing hot water or steam. The effect is similar to what happens when water is poured on a hot rock in a sauna. In other cases,  water vapor machines  act by condensing water vapor out of the air, such as may be seen when a freezer door is opened. Many commercial smoke machines use water vapor in some fashion. Important Points This type of smoke is best generated  in a cool room.Water vapor is non-toxic.Hot vapor will float, so chillers may be employed when a ground effect is desired.A fogger essentially makes a cloud, so water condensation on objects is possible and may present a safety concern.Water vapor, like all simulated smokes, will set off a  smoke alarm.

Thursday, November 21, 2019

Design and Implementation Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Design and Implementation - Assignment Example Design and Implementation Between-subjects design refers to such experimental designs where the participants are exposed to any one condition from among the various conditions. However in this case, a participant cannot be allowed to go for both the conditions. In other words, between-subjects design is used for measuring the effect of a particular thing on different groups, exposing one group to the particular condition and restricting the other group from being exposed in such condition. It never exposes the same subject to different conditions for studying the changes in the outcome. The statistical term for this method is nested design. This method can be applied in the process of measuring the effectiveness of the teaching aids used in modern times. In this experiment, the participants will be grouped randomly independent of their age, gender or educational status. Two groups will be formed namely group A and group B. Group A will go through a learning session where traditional methods like books, lectures and weekly tests will be included. The other group (Group B) will be exposed to audio-visual mediums, internet and group-discussion. After a month, both these groups would seat for an exam and the results will decide which teaching method is more effective. But it should always be noted, that factors like intelligence quotient (IQ), retention capability, slow learning, age etc. plays a major role in the outcome of the test. ... Provide an example of how you could use a nested design to conduct a study on a topic of interest to you. Answer Between-subjects design refers to such experimental designs where the participants are exposed to any one condition from among the various conditions. However in this case, a participant cannot be allowed to go for both the conditions. In other words, between-subjects design is used for measuring the effect of a particular thing on different groups, exposing one group to the particular condition and restricting the other group from being exposed in such condition. It never exposes the same subject to different conditions for studying the changes in the outcome. The statistical term for this method is nested design. This method can be applied in the process of measuring the effectiveness of the teaching aids used in modern times. In this experiment, the participants will be grouped randomly independent of their age, gender or educational status. Two groups will be formed na mely group A and group B. Group A will go through a learning session where traditional methods like books, lectures and weekly tests will be included. The other group (Group B) will be exposed to audio-visual mediums, internet and group-discussion. After a month, both these groups would seat for an exam and the results will decide which teaching method is more effective. But it should always be noted, that factors like intelligence quotient (IQ), retention capability, slow learning, age etc. plays a major role in the outcome of the test. Question 3 In your own words, describe the characteristics of a within-subjects (or, repeated measures; or, crossed) design. Provide an example of how you could us a

Wednesday, November 20, 2019

Should the authorities control what is show in TV Essay

Should the authorities control what is show in TV - Essay Example They would say that the authorities were put in place by the majority of the population so this gives them the right to ban something they may deem offensive. This essay will present both sides of the argument and will debate the pros and cons of each. Those who argue against censorship of television would say that the state has no right to interfere with the lives of its citizens. The state regulates television programming based on commissions that it has set up in order to look into this issue. The state has a role to protect its citizens from harmful programming that may offend a significant amount of viewers. Where people disagree with state censorship of television is that one particular thing may be censored but not another. What are the guidelines and boundaries that are used to determine whether something is suitable or not for television? Who is in charge of deciding what to censor and what not to censor? Opponents of television censorship would say that they are educated en ough to make their own decisions about what is appropriate for them and their families. It should be the role of the state to provide as much television programming as possible and then the individual viewer can decide if something is okay or not. Basically, this comes down to first amendment rights—a citizen has the freedom of speech to choose what he may or may not do.

Sunday, November 17, 2019

Memorandum to Karen Saunders Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Memorandum to Karen Saunders - Essay Example If there is too great a disparity in the costs, when weighed with the additional considerations outlined below, then we will immediately know which move to make. While capital outlay will be our driving concern, we will also consider other aspects of the site location so that we can make an informed decision based on a well-rounded analysis. Obviously, the question of transportation access will be an important consideration. The plant must be supplied and, once the product is ready, it must be distributed. The ease of access for both ends of the manufacturing process will be a key factor in our analysis. After consideration of costs and access, we will verify that we can comply with all zoning restrictions currently in place. This will include researching the previous operations of the bankrupt plant we are viewing for purchase, as well as any zoning issues related to expanding our current facility. We must confirm that our operational plan for each site is within the limits imposed by local governmental entities. Finally, we will evaluate the land use of both potential scenarios. This assessment will consider current use efficiencies, as well as any future potential for additional expansion. The land must serve our needs for today, as well as provide for our requirements tomorrow. Once these four factors are clearly understood within the context of corporate s

Friday, November 15, 2019

Neural structures: Subserving psychological function

Neural structures: Subserving psychological function This essay will evaluate what is known about the role of neural structures in subserving emotion. It was concluded that although emotion is a difficult behaviour to study scientifically, clear importance of the role of the amygdala has been found. Nonetheless, other structures and brain regions are involved in the responses to emotion, and how they interact together is an area in need of further investigation. Neural networks have been defined by Colman (2009) as a system of interconnected neurons. These systems can be either in the nervous system or in the brain. This essay will focus on the role of these neural structures in emotion. Colman (2009) defined emotion as a short-term evaluative, affective and intentional psychological state. The cognitive neuroscience of emotion has been slow to become widely recognised, as emotion is a behaviour that is difficult to study in a systematic manner. Recently however researchers have been challenging this gap in knowledge, and as a result, emotion is quickly emerging as a critical research topic (Gazzaniga, Ivry Mangun, 2009). BASIC HUMAN EMOTIONS Ekman and Friesen (1971) set out to find the basic human facial representations. From their cross-cultural work they suggested that anger, fear, disgust, happiness, sadness and surprise are the six basic human facial expressions that represent all emotional states. Despite there still being considerable debate about whether a single list is enough to incorporate all emotional experiences, it is generally agreed that these are the basic, universal human emotions (Gazzaniga et al., 2009); these emotions will therefore be the ones focused on later in the essay. HOW RESEARCH HAS DEVELOPED Early research into the cognitive neuroscience of emotion mainly focused on identifying the limbic system as the emotional brain (MacLean, 1949). Recently research has been focused on specific types of emotional tasks and identifying the neural systems underlying specific emotional behaviours. It is no longer thought that there is simply one neural circuit of emotion, rather that there are usually a number of different neural systems involved, dependant on the emotional situation (Gazzaniga et al., 2009). THE ROLE OF THE AMYGDALA The amygdala is a small structure in the medial temporal lobe. This structure has been a focus of research on emotional processing in the brain since Weiskrantz (1956, as cited in Gazzaniga et al., 2009) identified the amygdala as the primary medial temporal lobe structure underlying the fear related deficits in a medical condition known as KlÃÆ' ¼ver-Bucy syndrome. The amygdala receives inputs from every sensory system and is thought to be the structure where the emotional significance of sensory signals is learned and retained (Pinel, 2008). Sergerie, Chochol and Armony (2008) carried out a meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies looking at the role of the amygdala in emotional processing. Previously many functional neuroimaging studies have given solid support for an important role of the amygdala in negative emotional processing (Sergerie et al., 2008). The rationale behind this study was to address the issue of whether factors such as sex, valence and stimulus type have an effect on the magnitude and lateralization of amygdala reaction. The results confirmed that the amygdala reacts to both positive and negative emotional stimuli, particularly when participants were exposed to faces showing emotional expressions (Sergerie et al., 2008). Differences were not found in amygdala lateralization as a function of sex or valence. Strong support was also shown for a functional dissociation between the left and right amygdala in terms of temporal dynamics. The findings of this study indicate that the amygdala is involv ed in the processing of positive emotion as well as negative emotion. Following the large amount of empirical evidence showing the role of the amygdala in emotional processing, LeDoux (1996) warned that it may be tempting to conclude that the amygdala is at the centre of emotion reaction in the brain. This would be erroneous however, as there are clearly other structures involved in emotional processing. For the role of the neural system in emotion to be fully understood, further research is needed into the other structures involved. THE ROLE OF THE MEDIAL FRONTAL LOBES Recently, functional brain imaging studies have shown evidence of activity within the medial frontal lobes whilst emotions are being both cognitively suppressed or re-evaluated (Quirk Beer, 2006). The latest studies of medial prefrontal lobe activity have used suppression paradigms (where participants are told to suppress their emotional reactions to unpleasant images) or reappraisal paradigms (where participants are asked to try to reinterpret an image to adjust their emotional reaction to it) (Quirk Beer, 2006). The medial frontal lobes have been found to be active when both of these paradigms have been studied, and it seems that they interact with the amygdala to exert their cognitive control of emotion (Holland and Gallagher, 2004). These studies show that the medial frontal lobes have a role in the processing of emotion; further investigation is required in this area to reveal exactly what role this structure plays and how it interacts with other structures in the brain. THE REGULATION OF EMOTION Mak, Hu, Zhang, Xiao and Lee (2009) investigated the regulation of emotion through functional magnetic resonance imaging. The study identified neural correlates of the regulation of positive or negative emotion. The study of the regulation of emotion is important, as dysregulation of emotion is associated with the inability to modulate intense emotions that may worsen affective disorders (Mak et al., 2009). Whilst either viewing emotional pictures or regulating their emotions induced by these pictures, participants brain activities were monitored (Mak et al., 2009). The neuroimaging findings showed that the left superior and lateral frontal regions were common neural correlates of regulation for both emotions. The prefrontal regions and the left insula were found to be associated with regulation of positive emotion, while activity in the left orbitofrontal gyrus, the left superior frontal gyrus and the anterior cingulated gyrus appear to be associated with regulation of negative emot ion. In conclusion, Mak et al. (2009) suggested that there are both shared and specific neuro-cognitive mechanisms involved in the regulation of positive and negative emotions. If knowledge was to be enhanced into the neural mechanism behind emotion regulation, the understanding of the complex interaction between emotion and basic human behaviours could be improved. Through understanding the neural mechanisms behind emotion regulation, helpful insights could be provided into the biological basis of mental health (Mak et al., 2009). THE ROLE OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Several studies into the neural mechanisms of emotion have focused on individual differences. One of these studies, by Adolphs et al. (1999) tested how well nine neuropsychological patients with bilateral amygdala damage could identify emotion in facial expressions. As previously reported, the group as a whole was found to have problems identifying the emotion of fear (Adolphs et al., 1999). There were however, individual differences amongst the patients; some had difficulty identifying other negative emotions whereas two of the patients had no problem identifying emotions in facial expressions at all. Adolphà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s et al. (1999) said that remarkably these latter two patients had total bilateral amygdala lesions as revealed by structural MRIà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s. Canli, Sivers, Whitfield, Gotlib and Gabrieli (2002) used functional MRIs to look at the differences between the reactions of healthy participants who scored high in extraversion (who tend to have positive emotional reactions) and those who scored high on neuroticism (who have a tendency towards negative emotional reactions). It was found that all of the participants showed increased activity within the amygdala when viewing images of fearful faces, however only extraverts showed increased amygdala activity from viewing images of happy faces (Canli et al., 2002). These two studies indicate that individual differences affect the roles of neural structures in relation to emotion (Adolphs et al., 1999; Canli et al., 2002). This suggests that neural structures may play varying roles in experiencing emotion depending on the person, meaning that research into the roles of neural structures needs to consider differences between individuals for their findings to be relevant. A case study into one individual may show certain roles of a neural structure in emotional processing, however in another person this role may be slightly different. NEURAL NETWORK MODELLING OF SPECIFIC EMOTIONS Previously, the majority of the research into the neural network modelling of emotion has differentiated positive versus negative affect. Recently however, neural network modelling of specific emotions is beginning to emerge (Levine, 2006). The emotions mainly focused on in this research are the ones that were distinguished by Ekman and Friesen (1971), as mentioned earlier. THE NEURAL BASIS OF ANGER Blair, Morris, Frith, Perrett and Dolan (1999) carried out a study into the neural basis of anger. To do this they exposed subjects to either neutral or increasingly angry facial expressions while analyzing the areas of brain activation associated with the gradient of the intensity of anger. Blair et al. (1999) found the right orbitofrontal cortex became increasingly active when subjects were exposed to increasingly angry faces. These results suggest that the orbitofrontal cortex plays a role in explicit emotional labelling of angry faces. The role of the orbitofrontal cortex was further demonstrated by Sander et al. (2005). Participants were presented with meaningless phrases spoken with neutral prosody in one ear, and with angry prosody in the other. Participants were told to either attend to one ear or the other. It was found that activity in the right amygdala and superior temporal sulcus was changed independent of attention. Alternatively, the orbitofrontal cortex was only activated when the angry prosody had been attended to. This finding implies further that the orbitofrontal cortex is important for the explicit processing of anger. What now should be investigated is whether, and to what extent, individual differences have an effect; this could potentially help people who have problems with their anger by identifying the differences so that a solution can be found. THE NEURAL BASIS OF SADNESS Using the same paradigm, Blair et al. (1999) also investigated the neural basis of sadness. They found both the left amygdala and the right temporal lobe demonstrated activity linked with the intensity of sad expressions. These findings have however been contradicted by other recent studies. Adolphs and Tranel (2004) used a more sensitive approach, which involved the participants rating the intensity of an emotion rather than labelling it. They found that damage in the right amygdala caused a greater deficit in identifying sad faces when compared to damage to the left amygdala. Adolphs and Tranel (2004) believed that this difference in conclusions may have been due to the more insightful approach. There has not been much agreement for the neural basis of sadness, therefore this is an area of emotion which requires further research so that the roles of neural structures can be clarified. THE NEURAL BASIS OF FEAR Fear conditioning has become the preferred method of investigating fear as the source of fear is unambiguous and the development of the fear response can be systematically investigated (Pinel, 2008). Romanski and LeDoux (1992) studied the neural mechanisms of auditory fear conditioning by creating lesions in the auditory pathways of rats. It was found that bilateral lesions of the medial geniculate nucleus blocked fear conditioning to a tone; bilateral lesions of the auditory cortex however did not. The findings suggest that signals created by the tone only have to be able to reach the medial geniculate nucleus, not the auditory cortex, for auditory fear conditioning to occur. This also indicates that a pathway plays a crucial role in fear conditioning, going from the medial geniculate cortex to a structure other than the auditory cortex; this structure was proved to be the amygdala (Romanski LeDoux, 1992). They then found that lesions in the amygdala also blocked fear conditioning. Romanski and LeDoux (1992) argued that just because auditory cortex lesions do not disrupt fear conditioning does not mean that this structure is not involved in auditory fear conditioning. This is because there are two pathways from the medial geniculate nucleus to the amygdala. These are the auditory thalamus, and the auditory cortex; the indirect one, capable of mediating fear conditioning to more complex sounds (Jarrell et al., 1987, as cited in Pinel, 2008). Similarly, Armony et al. (1997) proposed a brain-based neural network model of auditory fear conditioning. Included are parallel cortical and subcortical pathways, reaching the primary emotional processing areas of the amygdala, as also shown by LeDoux (1996). It has been found that the subcortical pathway is quicker than the cortical, however the cortex performs more precise discrimination than the thalamus pathway. This finding suggests that the two pathways are involved in performing complementary functions; the subcortical pathway is vital in the presence of potentially dangerous stimuli where a fast response is crucial, and the cortical pathway is more useful where more detailed evaluations of stimuli are needed (Armony et al., 1997). Studies into fear have continually identified the amygdala as the main brain structure involved in the acquisition, storage and expression of conditioned fear (Armony et al., 1995;1997, Romanski LeDoux, 1992), therefore the role of the amygdala in fear conditioning is a widely accepted and stable notion. THE NEURAL BASIS OF SURPRISE Not many studies have investigated the emotion of surprise, however it is believed that surprise has important survival value, and therefore must be accessed early in the course of sensory processing (Plutchik Kellerman, 1986). To enable this, direct inputs to the amygdala from primary pathways provide this access, modulated by the swift habituation of sensory evoked responses in the amygdala. Because of this rapid action, surprise tends to be a short lived emotion, which leads on to another emotional state (Plutchik Kellerman, 1986); potentially making surprise a difficult emotion to study. THE NEURAL BASIS OF DISGUST Generally throughout the study of the neural basis of disgust, there has been a broad consensus that at least one area, the anterior insula, is crucial for both the detection and feeling of disgust (Philips et al., 1998). Based on imaging studies, this conclusion is in line with a study on a patient with insula damage whom is incapable of detecting disgust within varying modalities (Calder, Keane, Manes, Antoun, Young, 2000). Wicker, Keysers, Plailly, Royet, Gallese and Rizzolatti (2003) supported these findings, and went even further by analysing neural responses while watching others experience disgust, and firsthand experience of disgust. It was observed that in both these conditions the same part of the anterior insula was activated. These findings suggest that maybe understanding the emotions of others could require stimulation, and mildly experiencing, the emotions ourselves. This also implies a potential role of emotion in empathy (Gazzaniga et al., 2009). These findings by Philips et al. (1998), Calder et al. (2000) and Wicker et al. (2003) provide evidence that the insula is a neural correlate of experiencing disgust directly. The study by Wicker et al. (2003) also shows that the insula is essential in identification of disgust in others. Therefore, this indicates that the insula plays a role in the emotion of disgust, however the importance of this role is unknown. NEURAL CORRELATES OF HAPPINESS, SADNESS AND DISGUST An investigation into the neuroanatomical correlates of happiness, sadness and disgust was carried out by Lane, Reiman, Ahern, Schwartz and Davidson (1997). They used positron emission tomography to measure regional brain activity during exposure to happiness, sadness and disgust induced by film and recall. They found that happiness, sadness and disgust were all linked with increased activity in the thalamus and the medial frontal cortex, and also activation of anterior and posterior temporal structures, mainly when the emotions were induced by film. When sadness was recalled this linked with increased activation in the anterior insula; happiness was distinguished from sadness through greater activity around the ventral mesial frontal cortex. Lane et al. (1997) concluded that there seem to be a number of regions in the brain that are involved in emotions, with different combinations of structures concerned in feeling and identifying different emotions. This finding backs up LeDouxà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s (1996) reluctance to conclude that the amygdala is the centre of emotional reaction. EVALUATION OF METHODS Positron emission tomography (PET) is a technique often used in studies investigating co-morbidity. It provides images of brain activity, however these images are not of the brain, they are merely coloured maps giving an indication of the amount of radioactivity in the brain (Pinel, 2008). This means that it can only be estimated how much activity there is in each particular part of the brain, and therefore it is not a particularly accurate method of measuring brain activity in specific regions (Pinel, 2008). Another commonly used method of investigating brain activity in cognitive neuroscience is functional MRI (fMRI). The main strength of fMRI is that it provides both structural and functional information about the brain in one image (Posner Raichel, 1997), therefore revealing the brain function. This gives it an advantage over PET as a more precise image is produced (Pinel, 2008). Other advantages of this method over PET are that it provides a better spatial resolution, and three-dimensional images can be produced showing activity in the entire brain (Pinel, 2008). This information suggests that studies into the role of neural structures in emotion may be more reliable if the evidence comes from fMRI measurements, as a more accurate indication of which brain regions are activated at a certain time is given. CONCLUSION Through examining the literature surrounding the role of neural structures in emotion, it can be concluded that neural structures do play an important role. However, the significance of the role of neural structures in comparison to other factors, such as individual differences is still not clear. It has been proposed that neural structures have differing functions in the experience of emotion depending on the individual (Adolphs et al., 1999; Canli et al., 2002). This suggests that further research is needed in the field of individual differences to find these underlying factors, so that the function of neural structures can be more fully understood. Many challenges are faced in the study of emotion, as it is a behaviour that is difficult to define, manipulate and study with a scientific approach (Gazzaniga et al., 2009). Even so, investigation into the cognitive neuroscience of emotion has generally emphasized the importance of the role of the amygdala. The function of this structure in the response of emotion has been greatly influenced by research into animals; in both humans and other species the fact that the amygdala plays a vital role in the fear response has been demonstrated (Gazzaniga et al., 2009). The role of the amygdala is not the only structure researched in trying to identify the neural correlates involved in emotion, as recently different emotions have successfully been associated with other neural structures, including the orbitofrontal cortex in anger (Blair et al., 1999), and the insula, involved in disgust (Wicker et al., 2003). Nevertheless, an emerging change in the way the cognitive neuroscience of emotion is moving the emphasis from the study of individual neural structures to the investigation of neural systems (Gazzaniga et al., 2009). It is clear that the amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex and insula are vital in the processing of emotion. It is now important that in order to enable how the brain produces both normal and adaptive emotional responses to be understood, the way that these structures interact together (with each other and with other brain regions) and the effect of individual differences needs to be investigated. FURTHER READING Gazzaniga, M. S., Ivry, R. B., Mangun, G. R. (2009). (See References). Gives a general overview of the neural networks involved in emotion, particularly the amygdala. Plutchik, R. Kellerman, H. (1986). (See References). Gives more in depth detail of the networks involved in specific emotions. Sergerie, K., Chochol, C., Armony, J. L. (2008). (See References). Looks at previous research into the role of the amygdala in emotional processing which gives new information regarding previously proposed models.

Tuesday, November 12, 2019

Meet the Miller Essay -- Canterbury Tales Essays

Meet the Miller In the "General Prologue" of The Canterbury Tales, Chaucer presents his reader with a blend of unlikely yet entertaining characters that find themselves on a pilgrimage to Canterbury. Chaucer then describes the different characteristics and the outward appearances of these characters at length. He probably does so in order to bring these characters to life, giving us a more vivid understanding of what kind of people they were. The Miller is one of the most vivid characters that I have encountered in Chaucer's work for he is perfectly delineated as the man he is, without including any unnecessary detail. The Miller is described as a short and sturdy man who possesses uncanny strength. The undisputed champion of wrestling is he. He even seems hero-like at first: The millere was a stout churl for the nones; Ful byg he was of brawn, and eek of bones. That proved wel, for over al ther he cam, At wrastlynge he wolde have alwey the ram. He was short-sholdred, brood, a thikke knarre; Norton, 545-549. Although he is said to possess extraordinary strength, he is described in a derogatory manner as we read the passage. It seems that he is more of a brawl-initiator than a hero. The man wrestles for the ram, probably a prize awarded at such matches, clearly a peasant pastime. Even initially, it does not seem like we are dealing with a highly sophisticated person here. Actually, the Miller does use his head! I only hope he does so in rare instances for the author mentions that "ther was no dore that he nolde heve of harre, / or breke it at a rennyng with his heed" (Norton, 550-551). There you have it. Our hero engages in heaving doors off their hinges or breaking them down with his head. But do ... ...nded by. The Miller is, in fact, described as the scum of society, but he is necessary scum. Chaucer presents us with the facts of life, and whether we may think they are disgusting or unsuitable to be presented to us in such a blunt manner, they must be told, for they remain an undisputed piece of the Middle-English pie. Sources Abrams, M. H. and Greenblatt, Stephen. eds. The Norton Anthology of English Literature. W.W. Norton & Company: New York, 2000. Sumner, Laura. "The Wedding of Sir Gawain and Dame Ragnell." Smith College Studies in Modern Languages. V, No.4: Mass., 1924. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/CT-prolog-para.html,10/24/00. http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/canterbury/, 10/24/00. http://www.classicnote.com/ClassicNotes/Titles/canterbury/,10/24/00. http://www.classicnote.com/ClassicNotes/Titles/canterbury/tale1.html, 10/24/00.

Sunday, November 10, 2019

Free Trade and Poor Countries

Why free trade is in the interest of the world’s poorest countries Free trade has been a much discussed topic since the 1770s, when Adam Smith presented his theory on trade and absolute advantages. Most sources argue that free trade will benefit the poor nations in the long run (Anderson et al. 2011; Bussolo et al. 2011; Madely 2000; Winters et al. , 2004). How-ever, the size of the benefits will vary in terms of which trade reforms are made, who the poor are, and how they support themselves (Winters et al. 2004).The purpose of this paper is to discuss why and how free trade is in the interest of the world’s poorest countries. The essay will commence by a description of the traditional trade theories, followed by a discussion of the advantages and the im-pact free trade has on the poorest nations including different theories and findings. There are two classic elements in the definition of trade. The first is Adam Smith’s rule of ‘mutual gain’, asses sing that for two countries trading with each other both must gain.Furthermore Adam Smith argues that trade is based on ‘absolute advantages’, which means that free trade will benefit all nations, if they specialise in producing the goods in which they are most efficient. The countries will then be able to produce at a lower price and trade the surplus for goods where they are less effective. This will allocate the world’s resources in the best possible way (Dunkley 1997; Irwin 2002; Madely 2000; Smith 1776) The second element to trade is Ricardo’s (1817) argument that trade and specialisation is based on ‘comparative advantages’.If one country has the absolute advantages in all goods com-pared to another country both nations can still benefit from trading. The country with the absolute disadvantage should specialise in producing the goods in which the absolute disadvantage is small-est and then import the goods in which the absolute disadvant age is largest. In the perspective of comparative advantages, freeing up trade would give the developing countries a chance to specialise in the production of primary goods and export the surplus to the developed countries in exchange of e. g. industrial goods (Salvatore 2012).However, some sources argue that when the trading is between a poor country trading primary goods and a rich country trading industrial goods the latter will benefit the most, because the poor country will have to export more in order to import a similar amount (Madely 2000). In contrast, Samuelson (1939) argues that any kind of trade is better than no trade and Salvatore (2012) concludes that developing countries should continue trading as long as they gain. The capital they get from the trade should be used to improve their technology, which will change their comparative advantages from primary goods to more refined goods.This is supported by Winters et al. (2004) who point out that connection be-tween the l iberalisation of trade and growth have not yet been completely proven, however there is no proof that trade should be harmful to growth. Moreover, barriers of free trade are not the only factor causing poverty; wars, corruption, diseases, and natural disasters are just a few internal fac-tors that keep the poor countries in poverty (Salvatore 2012). Another argument for free trade is that it would utilise the developing countries unutilised resources, caused by the insufficient national demand, more efficient.Free trade would give productions in developing countries a chance to sell their surplus on a greater market and with this give the developing countries a vent for their surplus (Salvatore 2012). Furthermore, free trade would increase the efficiency of domestic producers in order for them to compete with foreign companies. In addition, the expanding of the market size would form a basis for division of labour and economies of scale (Salvatore 2012). Advocates of free trade argu e that free trade will maximise the world’s welfare (Bussolo et al. 2011).This is supported by the theory of imposing tariffs in small and large countries (Salvatore 2012). A small country is defined as a country where changes in the domestic market would not affect the international market price and a large country is defined as a country where changes would affect the international market prices (Salvatore 2012). If a small country imposes import tariffs they will experience an overall loss in welfare, because of deadweight loss which is caused by inefficiency in domestic production. If a large country imposes tariffs they will xperience an improvement in welfare because they are able to affect the international market price, the producer’s surplus rise and the government’s revenue increases (Salvatore 2012). However, gains from tariffs are often only short term; when a large country imposes tariffs their trading partners probably will too. This will result in reduced traded volume, which in the long term will cause a decrease in world welfare. Madely (2000) argues that free trade, historically, has raised the welfare of many nations, however, but not for the poorest nations.He claims that free trade mostly benefits the multinational companies, because the rise of food import has forced the smaller farmers to sell their land to the larger companies. Furthermore, the multinational companies do not have any commitment or loyalty to the country in which they are active, which means that the poorest stay poor. In contrast Dollar (2005) claims, that the fast growth and reduction of poverty has been strongest in the developing countries that have included themselves in the world economy most rapidly.Furthermore, Salvatore (2012) states that trade will move new technologies, ideas, and managing skills from the developed countries to the developing countries. So even though multinational companies are taking over the small farmer’s land t hey still provide the producing country with new knowledge and tools that can help the country develop new comparative advantages. Winters et al. (2004) claim, that freeing up trade is one of the easiest ways to reduce poverty.Agricultural trade reforms would have the largest and most positive impact on poverty, because three-quarters of the world’s poorest people still hinge on farming as their main source of income (Anderson et al. 2011). Furthermore, the poor countries also often have a large number of unskilled workers, which give the poor nations a comparative advantage in exporting labour-intensive goods (Bhagwati & Srinivasan 2002). This paper determines that free trade overall would be in the interest of the poorest countries. Free trade will increase the global welfare and help the poor countries develop their comparative ad-vantages.Multinational companies’ investments in the poor countries will result in moving of tech-nology, ideas and skills. However, theo ry is not always consistent with practice, why it is important to examine the different perspectives in each case. Abolishing the world’s trade tariffs would indeed help the world’s poorest countries access a greater market to sell their goods, however, freeing up trade alone would not completely eliminate poverty; wars, diseases, corruption, and catastrophes are also strong influential factors of poverty.

Friday, November 8, 2019

English Essay Writing Outline

English Essay Writing Outline English Essay Writing Outline English Essay Writing Outline Prior to writing English essay, you need to develop strategies for thinking and questioning. Setting up comparisons, questioning propositions, checking an argument for validity are all relevant for essay writing. Here are some useful strategies for your English essay writing outline. Ultimately, you will need to devise the one you can comfortably use while writing college English essay. Strategy one: Introduction (raise an issue). Say why X, Y and Z are important. Say what your English essay discusses and what the order is in which it is structured. Set the context, generate a background, and touch on issues. Review the background literature if it is necessary for English essay writing. Make specific comparisons. Give examples. Construct an argument based on evidence (main body of an essay). Draw some conclusions if you can. Summarize if necessary and point out any important implications. Add references, bibliography, and an appendix. Strategy two: Decide on approximately ten areas you want to write about. Write an outline and introduction. Write logically from paragraph to paragraph. Search for a more appropriate structure. Try out at least 3 structures. Choose one of these and redraft an English essay. Look at the overall shape. Is there an argument? Use a checklist devised by you to see if you have considered everything you needed to consider. Add references, bibliography, and an appendix. Good Essay Topics There are many ways to write about the same essay topic. Writing an essay sometimes you are clarifying a point, sometimes analyzing the implications of the point you have just made. Below are the four common strategies for English essay writing.   You are welcome to choose any strategy: 1 Describing 2 Interpreting 3 Generalizing 4 Hypothesizing The commonest form of English essay writing and the one that is the easiest to apply is describing. Description may be essential if you have to analyze the rigorous analysis and provide insightful comment. It is rarely possible to sustain lengthy description without moving to other forms of writing, especially if it is passive, factual description of events and situations. If you are not sure whether your academic English essay writing is descriptive without being analytical, try to find propositions within the essay. If none exists, then you probably have a mere description rather than expression of a point of view. Description acts as a symbol from which the reader can easily understand the message of the English essay.   Placing an order at .com, you receive custom written English essay and free outline.   In addition, you are welcome to request free services such as editing, revision, and cover page.   We are open for mutually beneficial cooperation based on tr ust and respect.

Wednesday, November 6, 2019

Translating So to Spanish

Translating So to Spanish So is one of those English words that has so many meanings that it can be translated to Spanish in dozens of ways. As such, it can be a confusing word for Spanish students - as a strategy when translating so, youre often better off thinking of a synonym for the way it is used and translating that instead. This lesson looks at a few of the ways so is used and suggests possible translations. In all cases, the translations used are not the only ones possible. Translating So as an Adverb Meaning Very Most of the time when so is used as an adverb meaning very it can be translated as tan. However, muy is sometimes acceptable as well. I was so happy that I jumped in the air. Yo era tan feliz que saltà © en aire.My love for you is so strong. Es tan fuerte mi amor por ti. (Alternative: Es muy fuerte my amor por ti.)He did it so poorly. Lo hizo tan mal. (Alternative: Lo hizo muy mal.)The city is so small that once you leave downtown theres nothing else. La ciudad es tan pequeà ±a que una vez que te sales del centro, ya no hay nada.Why is it so difficult for us to be happy?  ¿Por quà © es tan difà ­cil que seamos felices?The meat was so tasty that it needed only salt. La carne era tan rica que solo necesitaba sal.   Translating So in Approximations As the context requires, various ways of expressing approximations can be used when so is used for that purpose. I need to lose 20 pounds in two months or so. Necesito perder 20 libras en dos meses ms o menos.Im going to buy myself an aquarium holding 100 liters or so. Me voy a comprar un acuario de 100 litros aproximadamente.They stole about 20,000 pesos from her. Le robaron alrededor de 20 mil pesos. Translating So When It Indicates Causation A common use of so is to indicate why something is done. Various phrases of causation or purpose can be used. Often, such sentences cant be translated word for word - whats important is to get the proper connection between the different elements of the sentence. I will give you one so you dont forget me. Te darà © uno para que no me olvides.I was afraid, so I left. Me fui por miedo.I am innocent, so I am not going to go into hiding.  No me esconderà © porque soy inocente.Evil exists so we can appreciate what is good. El mal existe para que podamos apreciar lo que es bueno.There was violence, so many children were evacuated from the city. Muchos nià ±os fueron evacuados ciudad por causa de la violencia.  You can edit your digital photo so it seems like a painting. Podrs editar tu foto digital de modo que parezca una pintura. Translating So as a Transition or Filler Often, so can be left out of sentences without much of a change in meaning. In such cases, you can simply leave it out of the translation, or you can use a filler word such as pues or bueno if leaving out a word such as that would seem too abrupt. So, where are we going? Pues  ¿adà ³nde vamos?So now comes the best time of the year. Pues ahora llega la mejor à ©poca del aà ±o.So lets begin. Bueno, vamos a empezar.So what do you know?  ¿Quà © sabes? Translating So Meaning Also Usually, tambià ©n will work fine when translating so carrying meanings such as also or in addition: Youre from Texas? So am I!  ¿Eres de Tejas?  ¡Tambià ©n yo!I slept and so did they. Yo dormà ­ y tambià ©n ellos. Translating So in Set Phrases When so is used in various phrases or idioms, you can often translate the phrases as a whole for meaning, as in the following examples: The book has recipes for shakes of fruits such as apples, oranges, strawberries, kiwis and so on. El libro tiene recetas de batidos de frutas como las manzanas, naranjas, fresas, kiwis, etcà ©tera.Hes not a citizen. So what? No es ciudadano.  ¿Y quà ©?Every so often I imagine a good future. De cuando en cuando imagino un buen futuro.These are treated just so. Estos son tratados con sumo cuidado.I am going to buy raspberries, applies, blackberries, peras, strawberries, and so on. Voy a comprar frambuesas, manzanas, moras, peras, fresas, etcà ©tera.

Sunday, November 3, 2019

Tools of the Trade Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Tools of the Trade - Essay Example Since a project is a team effort, communication is a basic key to helping assure the endeavor stays on schedule. Conventional e-mail still relies on the hub and spoke method for transferring information among team members. A recent move has been made toward Digital Group Memory (DGM). This tool centralizes communication based on the objective, rather than the chronological reply method. All team members can input data, update progress, and share thoughts across the entire platform. As Jackson (2005) points out, it is a way "[...] to empowered team members who actively participate in planning and management". This shift away from centrality places greater responsibility on the team members. David Oates (2006), Vice President at Primavera Systems, points out the limitations of team communication. He contends that, "[...] while real time collaboration can cure many of the communication difficulties regularly encountered by project teams, theses tools are not sufficient for strategic assessment of projects" (p. 5).

Friday, November 1, 2019

Peter Paul Rubens (Flemish, 1577-1640) Research Paper

Peter Paul Rubens (Flemish, 1577-1640) - Research Paper Example He is declared as the most eminent Flemish painter and artist who ever existed. His contributions are not only identifiable in his paintings and artworks, but also in the works of his students, whom he gave refined training on artwork and painting. Although he learnt artwork under several reputable painters of the time, his artwork represented a refined brand, paving a new era in the European artistic field. His innovation in artwork made Antwerp the most popular destination of painting in the 17th century. He is notably credited with pioneering the Flemish Baroque style of painting (Rubens, Gilles and Chris, 7). This style involved use of exaggerated motion and color to depict movement in paintings and artwork, which easily produced the themes of drama, dance and music. His talents made him have more work than time could allow, making him amass immense wealth during his 30 years which he was involved in painting and artwork. However, the most interesting aspect of Peter Paul Rubens is that his talent grew with time and his expertise, refinement and abilities improved with time. Therefore, he maintained consistency in providing quality paintings, until he met his death in 1640. His accomplishments are notable to present day in different museums of Europe. His uniqueness is identifiable in the fact that; while most of the painters of his time specialized on one kind of painting, Peter Paul Rubens engaged in different types of paintings, all of which he perfected and generated quality works (Rubens, Gilles and Chris, 13). History painting is one of his styles, which involved the creation of biblical, historical and mythological objects. To portray the historical theme, he created paintings such as monumental historical scenes and biblical story painting representations, which resonated well with his movement and color themes that advanced visualization and movement. Religious paintings also formed a bulk of his artwork. He is credited with advancing the development of altarpiece paintings, which were religious paintings portraying a biblical theme that were placed in a flame and suspended behind the altar to pass a religious message (Logan, Peter and Michiel, 23). In creating his religious paintings, Peter Paul Rubens used the panel pai nting technique, which entails the incorporation of different painting themes in a panel that was subdivided several times, with each section of the panel possessing a different painting, but all advancing the same theme or telling the same story (Pauw-De Veen, 243). His altarpieces were either painted in front of the altar, where the priest could stand behind, or painted on a panel that was then suspended in front of the altar. Among the most popular of his religious paintings include the Descent from the Cross triptych, which was painted in the in Antwerp, Cathedral of the Lady (Pauw-De Veen, 248). Peter Paul Rubens is also an advent of the Counter-Reformation painting, which highly changed the paintings that were previously done during the renaissance and the thirteenth century (Rubens, Gilles and Chris, 18). This refers to the artwork that sought to turn back the religious paintings into more religious oriented, as opposed to the decoration oriented themes that were being advanc ed during the period. During this period, the Catholic Church perceived the Protestants as a major threat to its doctrines of faith. Therefore, they sought to enhance their religious theme through the application of artwork and paintings that reflected more religious themes. Thus, Rubens, being the most eminent painter of his time, was hired to revolutionize the renaissance painting into the counter-reformation artwork and paint